References

Works Referenced and Works Cited

Carlson, Lisa M., et al. "Carbon emissions form forest conversion by Kalimantan oil palm plantations." Nature Climate Change. 23 Nov. 2012. Web. 07 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nclimate1702.html>

Sood, Suemedha. "The repercussions of rainforest reduction." bbc.com. 23 Nov. 2012. Web. 02 Nov. 2012. <http://www.bbc.com/travel/blog/20121102-the-repercussions-of-rainforest-reduction>

White, Mel. "Borneo's Moment of Truth." National Geographic Magazine. 23 Nov. 2012. Web. Nov. 2008. <http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/print/2008/11/borneo/white-text>

World Wildlife Fund. "Borneo Lowland Rainforests." The Encyclopedia of Earth. 23 Nov. 2012. Web. 21 August 2011. <http://www.eoearth.org/article/Borneo_lowland_rain_forests?topic=49597>

Yale Environment 360. "A Desperate Effort to Save the Rainforest of Borneo." MatterNetwork. 23 Nov. 2012. Web. 15 June 2012. <http://featured.matternetwork.com/2012/6/desperate-effort-save-rainforest-borneo.cfm>

Map of Borneo

Fitzgerald, Peter. "Borneo." Image. Wikimedia. 26 Nov. 2012. Web. 1 Nov. 2009.

Forest Cover Loss Map
http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/borneo_forests/borneo_deforestation/

The Pre-Human Borneo

Once upon a time...

Before humans overran the earth and obliterated nearly everything they could into profit, the lowland rainforests thrived all over the island of Borneo, a tropical wet climate zone, where average monthly rainfall is more than 200 millimeters all year, and temperature ranges stay within 10°C of each other. One of the oldest rainforests in the world (also one of the most biodiverse places), the Borneo lowland rainforests host 155 endemic species, 380 species of birds, an estimated 15,000 known plant species, a wealth of reptiles and amphibians unparalleled in the Sunda Shelf, and is home to some of the world's most critically endangered species, such as the Sumatran rhinoceros, Bornean orangutan, clouded leopard, sun bear, among countless others.


In its pristine state, the lowland rainforests are a rich and lush reserve full of life and activity. Like all other rainforests, the lowlands contain a multiplicity of plant species that separate into three distinct layers. A variety of tree species make up the middle layer, a 24-36 meters tall canopy, with a few trees emerging from the canopy to reach a high 65 meters to constitute the uppermost layer, the emergent layer. The bottom layer resides in the perpetual shade of canopy, forming the understory where all plant species are adapted to darkness and vie for what little sunshine seeps through. These rainforests are the hub for both plant and animal life, for as many as 240 unique tree species can live on a single hectare. A plethora of plants also leads to an abundance of animal species. Due to the absence of large carnivores, several medium-sized carnivores share the land with countless other smaller animals, many of which are endemic to the island. Several share similarities with species from islands around the region, due to the Pleistocene glacial period, when Java, Sumatra, Borneo, mainland Malaysia, and Indochina were all connected before sea levels rose. The land itself is formed of limestones, volcanic rocks, schist-gneiss complexes, and sedimentary rocks, with 130 million years of biomass decay coupled with waterlogged soil forming peat swamps.

Lowland rainforest in its pristine, virtually unexplored state of the Danum valley on Borneo, Sabah State, Malaysia
Frans Lanting/Corbis. Photograph. "Weird and Wonderful Species Found in the Heart of Borneo." The Guardian. 26 Nov. 2012. Web. 22 April 2010.

Present-day Borneo

But once the humans came...

Everything became ugly. Even before our modern day plundering of the land, people from way back in history had already started to exploit the land, albeit in a slower and less drastic manner than we have as of late. The Chinese came for rhinoceros horn, bird's nest, and aromatic wood, the Muslim and Portuguese for pepper and gold, the British and Dutch for tropical hardwood, and now, the Americans, Europeans, and Australians for oil, natural gas, and coal. And if that isn't reason enough for all the Westerners to come in and ravage the island, the high demand for palm oil incentivizes the locals to also  exploit their own land to such an extent that the products from Indonesia and Malaysia combined account for roughly 86% of the entire world's palm oil supply. And not only does the production of palm oil mean a monoculture of oil palms dominating the landscape (which virtually guarantees no biodiversity), it also means that highly lucrative business would push farmers to continually invade lowland forests to make room for their own crops. And if that isn't bad enough, the island also happens to possess peat swamp forests, which cover around 11% of the island, resulting in sporadic mines littered all over the island, waste dumped into fresh water, a higher susceptibility to fire, and the dumping of carbon into the atmosphere.

Yale Environment 360. "A Desperate Effort to Save the Rainforest of Borneo."  MatterNetwork. 23 Nov. 2012. Web. 15 June 2012.

Yale Environment 360. "A Desperate Effort to Save the Rainforest of Borneo."  MatterNetwork. 23 Nov. 2012. Web. 15 June 2012.

With all these issues threatening the very existence of our "world's lungs," what is the government doing about them? The answer: not much. Whatever law or ordinance manages to get passed by the government isn't enforced, for what little law enforcement Indonesia has is seen as better spent in other areas. Unfortunately, this means that logging, whether legal or illegal, has little or no obstacle to the once vast tracts of tropical hardwood trees. Most logging occurred within the last 30 years, both for commercial and agricultural purposes, with many using the slash-and-burn technique and then replanting with fast-growing, exotic species. As a result, in 1982 through 1983, 27,000 km2 of tropical rainforest burned, the largest recorded fire ever. The cause was none other than widespread logging over previous decade, which transformed the primary forest into a fire-vulnerable, degraded land. Because the high humidity and moisture of the climate keeps fires low, the native vegetation is not adapted for fire. Yet they apparently did not learn their lesson, because from 1997 to 1998, 23,750 km2 burned again. This time, large amounts of dead wood from the previous fire and the previously-unexposed dry ground normally covered by the canopy added to the intensity of the fire. The fire, of course, was welcomed (or perhaps even started) by the farmers, for it provided more land for them to grow oil palm and more valuable timber to harvest. The government, rather than being an obstacle, has actually encouraged it. The government under Suharto (or rather, he and his cronies) treated the forests as their personal resources, exploiting it whenever it benefited them and their wallets. Even though he was forced out of office in 1998, government exploitation continues to today, with many local officials loaning out vast tracts to the highest bidder. It's unfortunate because although certain spots of rainforests have, for the most part, been left alone, the cutting down of forests all around leads to little islands of isolation, where species come into increased contact with humans and thus dramatically decreasing their chances of survival, and eventually the entire ecosystem as a whole. 

Carlson, Lisa M., et al. "Carbon emissions form forest conversion by Kalimantan oil palm plantations." Nature Climate Change. 23 Nov. 2012. Web. 07 Oct. 2012.

The Facts


1. Oil palm contributes more than 30% of the world's production of vegetable oil.

2. Oil Palm Development across Kalimantan (538,346 km2) from 1990 to 2010

     1990-2010      90% of land converted were forested (47% intact, 22% logged, 21% agroforests)

                            65–75% of 1990–2010 net oil palm emissions

     2000-2010      expanded 278%

                            79% of allocated leases remained undeveloped

     2010               87% of total oil palm (31,640 km2) on mineral soil

     2020              full lease development convert 93,844 km2 (~ 90% forested, incl. 41% intact forests)

                            occupy 34% of lowlands outside protected areas

Plantation expansion in Kalimantan alone is projected to contribute 18–22% of Indonesia’s 2020 CO2-equivalent emission.

Carlson, Lisa M., et al. "Carbon emissions form forest conversion by Kalimantan oil palm plantations." Nature Climate Change. 23 Nov. 2012. Web. 07 Oct. 2012.

The Future and Improvements

In the near future...

Not much will change. Companies will continue to log the forests and convert the land into oil palm plantations. By 2020, 34% of the unprotected lowlands will fall to become monotonous rows of oil palms and Borneo's palm oil plantations will produce more than 600 million tons of carbon dioxide - more than the entire fossil fuel emission from Canada. As the second largest ecoregion in Indo-Pacific, Borneo has undergone so much environmental degradation that more than half of its natural habitat has been degraded or cleared. Even the protected areas aren't looking so good. On paper and numbers-wise, it doesn't look too bad - 60 reserves peppered throughout the island cover about 12% of the land. However, many of these protected areas are small (less than 100 km2), some are still in progress, and some have not even been approved yet. But with sparse law enforcement, even these protected areas are not safe, for if no one is enforcing the law, it's just as if it doesn't even exist. Things are looking a tiny bit better though. A few government officials have been pushing for more environmental regulation because they know that if this rate of exploitation continues, soon there will be no more resources for them to plunder. But for the most part, the government still runs on bribes and backdoor dealings. The people also care not about the environment, but about how they can make a living, which, for now, oil palm still dominates.

But maybe...

It can change. First and foremost on the cutting board is the government. No matter how many funds are directed to Borneo or how many laws are passed, if the government pockets all the money and does not enforce the laws, it is all for naught. Ever since Suharto was forced out of office, the government has made small improvements. Rather than recklessly leasing out valuable tracts of lowland forests to developers in order to make up for the budget shortfall, director of forestry Sam Mannan proposed the establishment oil palm plantations on 100,000 hectares of land cleared for the non-existent pulp plantations in hope that they would leave the forests under the control of the forestry department instead of permanently turning them over to palm oil plantations. Pristine tracts of untouched forests will probably never be a reality for Borneo. The best we can hope for is sustainable use of the forests, like selective logging and minimal human interference. The people of Borneo will never care about saving the orangutan or other endangered species if they can' make enough to feed their family. Right now, the industry that supplies them with the best standard of living is the palm oil plantations. Until we can link the locals' survival with the preservation of the forests, they will have no vested interest in its protection. With jobs such as rangers, ecologists, tour guides, and law enforcement officials, their livelihood will depend on the forests. No forest will mean no job, so they'll have a reason to look after it. Change won't come from corporate conferences in a high-rise building, but from the ground level. It will require a lot of effort on the part of the international community to reach out to the Borneo community. But we still have hope. Now if only we can act before it's too late.